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A Security Information and Event Management (SIEM) system collects data from various sources (logs, events, etc.) and uses correlation rules to analyze this data and trigger alarms when suspicious or predefined patterns are detected.

According to the NIST definition of cloud computing1, there are three service models for cloud computing: Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS), Platform as a Service (PaaS), and Software as a Service (SaaS). In the SaaS model, the cloud provider delivers the software applications over the internet, and the users access them from various devices through a web browser or a program interface. The cloud provider manages the underlying infrastructure, including the servers, databases, and code of the applications. The users do not need to install, update, or maintain the software, and they only pay for the service they use. The scenario described in the question is an example of the SaaS model, as the user is provided access over the internet to an application running on a cloud infrastructure, and the vendor hosts and maintains the servers, databases, and code of that application. References:

SP 800-145, The NIST Definition of Cloud Computing | CSRC

Final Version of NIST Cloud Computing Definition Published

NIST Cloud Computing Program - NCCP | NIST

SaaS - User responsible for only the data, vendor responsible for rest

2G/2.5G: 2G connectivity remains a prevalent and viable IoT connectivity option due

to the low cost of 2G modules, relatively long battery life, and large installed base of

2G sensors and M2M applications.

○ 3G: IoT devices with 3G modules use either Wideband Code Division Multiple Access

(W-CDMA) or Evolved High Speed Packet Access (HSPA+ and Advanced HSPA+) to

achieve data transfer rates of 384Kbps to 168Mbps.

○ 4G/Long-Term Evolution (LTE): 4G/LTE networks enable real-time IoT use cases, such

as autonomous vehicles, with 4G LTE Advanced Pro delivering speeds in excess of

3Gbps and less than 2 milliseconds of latency.

○ 5G: 5G cellular technology provides significant enhancements compared to 4G/LTE

networks and is backed by ultra-low latency, massive connectivity and scalability for

IoT devices, more efficient use of the licensed spectrum, and network slicing for

application traffic prioritization.

A host-based architecture uses virtual machines (VMs) to run workloads on a shared host, commonly found in public cloud environments. Each VM operates independently with its own OS, making this model suitable for traditional and isolated application deployments.

Least privileges access control is the capability of a Zero Trust network security architecture that leverages the combination of application, user, and content identification to prevent unauthorized access. Least privileges access control means that users and devices are only granted the permissions they need to perform their tasks, and nothing more. This helps reduce the attack surface and makes it more difficult for attackers to gain access to sensitive data or resources. Least privileges access control is based on the principle of Zero Trust, which assumes that there are attackers both within and outside of the network, so no users or devices should be automatically trusted. Zero Trust verifies user identity and privileges as well as device identity and security, and requires end-to-end encryption. Least privileges access control also involves careful management of user permissions and network segmentation, which limit the amount of information and length of time people can access something, and contain the damage if someone does get unauthorized access. References: What Is Zero Trust Architecture? | Microsoft Security, Zero Trust security | What is a Zero Trust network? | Cloudflare, What is Zero Trust Architecture? | SANS Institute, What Is a Zero Trust Architecture? | Zscaler, What is Zero Trust Architecture (ZTA)? - CrowdStrike.

A static routing protocol requires that routes be created and updated manually on a router or other network device. If a static route is down, traffic can’t be automatically rerouted unless an alternate route has been configured. Also, if the route is congested, traffic can’t be automatically rerouted over the less congested alternate route. Static routing is practical only in very small networks or for very limited, special-case routing scenarios (for example, a destination that’s used as a backup route or is reachable only via a single router). However, static routing has low bandwidth requirements (routing information isn’t broadcast across the network) and some built-in security (users can route only to destinations that are specified in statically defined routes).

Port hopping is a technique that changes protocols at random during a session to evade detection and analysis by security devices. Port hopping can be used by malware or attackers to communicate with command and control servers or to exfiltrate data. Port hopping makes it difficult to identify and block malicious traffic based on port numbers or signatures. References: Port Hopping, Ports Used for Management Functions, Adding a Custom Application/Ports to Security Policy

App-ID™ technology leverages the power of the broad global community to provide continuous identification, categorization, and granular risk-based control of known and previously unknown SaaS applications, ensuring new applications are discovered automatically as they become popular.

Multitenancy is a key characteristic of the public cloud, and an important risk. Although public cloud providers strive to ensure isolation between their various customers, the infrastructure and resources in the public cloud are shared. Inherent risks in a shared environment include misconfigurations, inadequate or ineffective processes and controls, and the “noisy neighbor” problem (excessive network traffic, disk I/O, or processor use can negatively impact other customers sharing the same resource). In hybrid and multicloud environments that connect numerous public and/or private clouds, the delineation becomes blurred, complexity increases, and security risks become more challenging to address.

URL categories classify websites based on content type or risk, enabling dynamic policy enforcement such as blocking or allowing access. Administrators can create custom URL categories to group sites like gambling domains and apply blocking rules across the firewall infrastructure. Palo Alto Networks firewalls leverage URL categorization combined with threat intelligence to provide granular web filtering, reducing exposure to malicious or unwanted sites. This dynamic grouping approach is more manageable and scalable than creating individual signatures or static lists and allows for automated policy application aligned with organizational compliance requirements.